Tag: Repo Rate | Page 4

4 August, 2015

RBI monetary policy: Interest rates won’t come down unless bad loans are controlled

The third Bi-monthly Monetary Policy Statement for 2015 was released by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) today (August 4, 2015). As was widely expected, the RBI led by Governor Raghuram Rajan did not cut the repo rate and let it stay at 7.25%. Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to banks and acts as a sort of a benchmark for the interest rates that banks pay for their deposits and in turn charge on their loans.

The RBI did not cut the repo rate because the rate of inflation has been on its way up. As the monetary policy statement pointed out: “Headline consumer price index (CPI) inflation rose for the second successive month in June 2015 to a nine-month high on the back of a broad based increase in upside pressures, belying consensus expectations…Food inflation rose 60 basis points [one basis point is one hundredth of a percentage] over the preceding month, driven by a spike in prices of vegetables, protein items – especially pulses, meat and milk – and spices.”

Food prices are something that the RBI cannot do much about. But prices on the whole have been going up as well. As the monetary policy statement pointed out: “Excluding food and fuel, inflation rose in respect of all subgroups other than housing. The momentum of price increases remained high for education. Inflation pressures increased for personal care and effects and household goods and services sub-groups. Inflation in CPI excluding food, fuel, petrol and diesel has been rising steadily since April.” Non food and fuel inflation will continue to go up as the new (and higher) service tax rate of 14% comes into effect June 2015 onwards. All these reasons led to the RBI keeping the repo rate constant.

More importantly, there is an interesting data point that the RBI monetary policy statement reveals: “Since the first rate cut in January, the median base lending rates of banks has fallen by around 30 basis points, a fraction of the 75 basis points in rate cut so far.”

What this basically means is that even though the RBI has cut the repo rate by 75 basis points, the median interest rate at which banks lend money has fallen by only 30 basis points. At the same time, the deposit rate cuts carried out by banks have almost matched the repo rate cut of 75 basis points that has happened so far.

A report in the Mint newspaper points out: “Large lenders such as State Bank of India (SBI), ICICI Bank Ltd, Punjab National Bank, HDFC Bank Ltd and IDBI Bank Ltd started trimming their deposit rates across various maturity periods since October last year, and reduced them by 75-100 bps[basis points].”

If a bank is cutting its deposit rates much faster than its lending rate, it is obviously looking to increase its profit margins. Why is it doing that? The answer in the current case is the bad loans that have been piling up with the Indian banking sector in general and public sector banks in particular.

Data from the RBI’s Financial Stability Report released in June 2015 shows that the gross non-performing assets of scheduled commercial banks in India stood at 4.6% of their total advances, as on March 31, 2015. The number had stood at 4% as on March 31, 2014.

What is even more worrying is the fact that the total amount of stressed advances have jumped significantly over the last one year. As on March 31, 2014, the stressed advances stood at 9.8% of the total advances. A year later this had jumped to 11.1%. The situation in public sector banks is even worse with stressed advances jumping from 11.7% of advances to 13.5%, between March 2014 and March 2015.

The stressed advances number is arrived at by adding the gross non-performing assets (or bad loans) and restructured loans divided by the total assets held by the scheduled commercial banks. Hence, the borrower has either stopped repaying the loan or the loan has been restructured, where the borrower has been allowed easier terms to repay the loan by increasing the tenure of the loan or lowering the interest rate. This entails a loss for the bank.

What this means is that for every Rs 100 that public sector banks have given out as a loan Rs 13.5 is in dodgy territory. The borrower has either defaulted or the loan has been restructured.

Hence, it is not surprising that banks have been cutting their deposit rates in line with the fall in the repo rate. But their lending rates have not fallen at the same pace. The idea is to increase the profit margin between the cost of borrowing and the cost of lending. This is to ensure that there is enough leeway to account for the bad loans that have been piling up.

If the banks cut their lending rates at the same pace as their borrowing rates, they will either end up with losses or with falling profit levels. Nobody wants that.
Also, banks on the whole have been using the restructuring route to postpone recognising bad loans as bad loans. What this means is that the bad loans of banks (particularly public sector banks) will keep piling up. And hence, the banks will not cut lending rates in line with future cuts in the repo rate as and when they happen.

As one of the deputy governors of the RBI SS Mundra had pointed out in a recent speech: “There has also been an increase in incidence of suits filed against defaulters and cases of wilful default- an unwillingness to pay, despite an ability to pay. These problems could have their genesis in a failure to exercise the right amount of prudence and due diligence on part of the banker or an ab initio intent of the borrower to defraud the bank.”

Also, because of this the trust needed for a banker-borrower relationship to work well has broken down. As Mundra said during the course of his speech: “Recent spurt in instances of forensic audit being conducted by bankers on their borrowers signifies a breakdown in the implicit trust…The banker-borrower relationship is essentially symbiotic as both need each other. Both have certain expectations from the other and when these don’t get fulfilled on account of a malafide or fraudulent intent on the part of either of them, the relationship gets strained.”

This needs to be set right if a meaningful fall in lending rates has to happen. And at the sound of sounding clichéd, this is easier said than done.

(Vivek Kaul is the author of the Easy Money trilogy. He tweets @kaul_vivek)

The column was originally published on August 4, 2015, on Firstpost

9 June, 2015

Arghhh, Mr Jaitley it’s still not about cutting interest rates

The finance minister Arun Jaitley is at it again. A recent report in the Business Standard suggests that Jaitley is scheduled to meet public sector banking chiefs on this Friday i.e. June 12, 2015, and ask them why they haven’t cut interest rates in line with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) cutting the repo rate.
The RBI has cut the repo rate by 75 basis points (one basis point is one hundredth of a percentage) to 7.25% since the beginning of this year. Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to banks. In response banks have cut their lending rates by only 30 basis points.
The finance minister wants to know why banks have not matched the RBI rate cut when it comes to their lending rates even though they have cut their deposit rates by close to 100 basis points over the last one year.
The finance minister believes that at a lower interest rate people and companies will borrow more, and banks will lend more. But as I have often said in the past this is a very simplistic assumption to make.
First and foremost a cut in the repo rate does not bring down the legacy borrowing costs of banks. Hence, lending rates cannot always fall at the same speed as the repo rate. Further, data from the RBI shows that as on May 15, 2015, nearly 29.9% of aggregate deposits of banks were invested in government securities. This when the statutory liquidity ratio or the proportion of deposits that should be invested in government securities, stands at 21.5%.
So what does this mean? Banks have way too much investment in government securities. In fact, as on May 15, 2015, the total aggregate deposits of banks stood at Rs 87,39,610 crore. Of this amount around 29.9% or Rs 26,14,770 crore is invested in government securities.
As things currently stand, banks investing Rs 18,79,016 crore in government securities would have been suffice to meet the regulatory requirement of 21.5%. What this means that banks have invested Rs 7,35,754 crore more than what is required in government securities.
Why is that the case? The answer could be lazy banking or the lack of decent loan giving opportunities going around. Clarity on this front can only come from banks doing the necessary explaining.
There are other things that Jaitley needs to consider as well. The bad loans or gross non-performing assets of banks have been going up. As on March 31, 2014, they had stood at 3.9% of their total advances. By March 31, 2015, the number had shot up to 4.3% of the total advances.
The situation is worse in case of public sector banks. As on March 31, 2015, the stressed asset ratio of public sector banks stood at 13.2%. The stressed assets ratio of public sector banks as on March 31, 2014, was at 11.7%. The stressed asset ratio of the overall banking system was at 10.9% as on March 31, 2015 and 9.8% as on March 31, 2014.
The stressed asset ratio is the sum of gross non performing assets(or bad loans) plus restructured loans divided by the total assets held by the Indian banking system. The borrower has either stopped to repay this loan or the loan has been restructured, where the borrower has been allowed easier terms to repay the loan by increasing the tenure of the loan or lowering the interest rate. Hence, a stressed assets ratio of 13.2% essentially means that for every Rs 100 given out as a loan, Rs 13.2 has either been defaulted on or has been restructured.
What this clearly tells us is that the situation of the public sector banks has gone from bad to worse, over the last one year. In this situation it is hardly surprising that the banks have cut their fixed deposit rates but haven’t cut their lending rates by a similar amount.
With increased bad loans, they need to earn a higher margin on their good loans, to maintain or increase the level of profits. This scenario has arisen primarily because many corporates have been unable to repay the loans they had taken on.
Banks have not been able to recover these loans. A newsreport in The Economic Times yesterday, pointed out that the RBI is mulling a new rule that will give lenders a 51% equity control in a company, which fails to repay a loan even after its loan conditions have been restructured. Whether this happens remains to be seen. Further, many companies which failed to repay loans belong to crony capitalists who continue to be close to politicians.
Also, it needs to be pointed out that the corporate profits as a share of the gross domestic product is at 4.3% of the GDP, which is the lowest since 2004-2005. (I would like to thank Anindya Banerjee who works with Kotak Securities for bringing this to my notice).
What this tells us is that corporates as a whole are still not earning enough to be able to repay any fresh bank loans that they may take on. In this scenario insisting that the banks cut interest rates and lend is not the most suitable suggestion to make.
The Economic Survey released earlier this year had a very interesting table, which I have reproduced here.

Top Reasons for stalling across ownership

Source : CMIE

What the table clearly shows is that a lack of funds is not one of the main reasons for the 585 stalled projects in the private sector. In case of the 161 stalled government projects, the lack of funds is the third major reason. Hence, there are other reasons which the government needs to tackle, in order to get these projects going again. Lack of finance is clearly not a main reason.
Further, the high interest rates on post office savings schemes put a floor on the level to which banks can cut their fixed deposit rates and in the process their lending rates. This is something that the public sector banks can do nothing about.
To conclude, what all these reasons clearly suggest is that Arun Jaitley and this country would be better off if we got rid our fixation for lower interest rates being a solution to reigniting economic growth. There are other bigger things that need to be sorted out first.

The column originally appeared on The Daily Reckoning on June 9, 2015

8 April, 2015

Rajan doesn’t have much scope to cut repo rate further

The Reserve Bank of India(RBI) governor Raghuram Rajan presented the first monetary policy for this financial year, yesterday. He kept the repo rate at 7.5%, after having cut it by 25 basis points(one basis point is one hundredth of a percentage) each in January and March, earlier this year. Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to banks and acts as a sort of a benchmark to the interest rates that banks pay for their deposits and in turn charge on their loans.
Rajan further said that “going forward, the accommodative stance of monetary policy will be maintained.” This meant that the RBI would continue to bring down the repo rate subject to a few factors.
First, Rajan said that the banks had not passed on the earlier cuts in the repo rate to the end consumers by cutting their base rates or the minimum interest rate a bank charges its customers. Without this happening there is no point in the RBI cutting the repo rate. (In a column earlier this month I had explained why banks are not cutting their base rates. You can read it here).
Secondly Rajan said that “ developments in sectoral prices, especially those of food, will be monitored, as will the effects of recent weather disturbances and the likely strength of the monsoon.” The northern part of the country has seen unseasonal rains and that has led to rabi cop being damaged. This is expected to push food prices up. Governor Rajan wants to monitor this for a while and see how it pans out, before deciding to cut the repo rate further.
Third, the RBI is watching what the government is doing on the policy front to “ to unclog the supply response so as to make available key inputs such as power and land.” And fourth, the Rajan led RBI is watching “for signs of normalisation of the US monetary policy”. This essentially means that the RBI is closely observing as to when the Federal Reserve of the United States, will start raising interest rates in the United States.
Depending on how these factors play out, the RBI will decide if and when to cut the repo rate further. But the question is how much room does the RBI have to cut the repo rate any further? Rajan has often said in the past that he wants to maintain a real interest rate level of 1.5-2%. Real interest is essentially the difference between the rate of interest (in this case the repo rate) and the rate of inflation.
The current repo rate at which the RBI lends stands at 7.5%. In the monetary policy statement released yesterday RBI said: “The Reserve Bank will stay focussed on ensuring that the economy disinflates gradually and durably, with CPI inflation targeted at 6 per cent by January 2016.”
If we consider the rate of inflation of 6% and add a real rate of interest of 1.75%(the average of 1.5% and 2%) to it, we get 7.75%. The current repo rate is at 7.5%, which is 25 basis points lower than 7.75%.
What if, we consider the latest rate of inflation as measured by the consumer price index? For the month of February 2015, the inflation stood at 5.4%. If we add 1.75% to it, we get 7.15%, which is lower than the prevailing repo rate of 7.5%. If we add 1.5% to the prevailing rate of inflation, we get 6.9%, which is sixty basis points lower than the prevailing repo rate of 7.5%.
What both these calculations clearly tell us is that there is not much scope for the RBI to cut the repo rate further. At best it can cut the repo rate by another 50 basis points. This is assuming that Rajan maintains his previous stance of maintaining a real interest rate level of 1.5-2%.
As of now there is no evidence to the contrary. As Rajan had said in September 2014: “Have we artificially kept the real rate of interest somehow below what should be the appropriate natural rate of interest today and created bad investment that is not the most appropriate for the economy?”
This is a very important statement and needs to be dealt with in some detail. Look at the accompanying chart.
The government of India between 2007-2008 and 2013-2014 was able raise money at a much lower rate of interest than the prevailing inflation. The red line which represent the estimated average cost of public debt(i.e. Interest paid on government borrowings) has been below the green line which represents the consumer price inflation, since around 2007-2008.
And if the government could raise money at a rate of interest below the rate of inflation, banks couldn’t have been far behind. Hence, the interest offered on fixed deposits by banks and other forms of fixed income investments was also lower than the rate of inflation, between 2007-2008 and 2013-2014.
This essentially ensured that household financial savings fell from 12% of the GDP in 2009-2010 to 7.2% of the GDP in 2013-2014. As the rate of interest on bank fixed deposits was lower than the rate of inflation, people moved their money into real estate and gold. Household financial savings is essentially the money invested by individuals in fixed deposits, small savings scheme, mutual funds, shares, insurance etc.
If the household financial savings rate has to be rebuilt, the rate of interest on offer to depositors has to be significantly greater than the rate of inflation. Given this, a real rate of interest of 1.5-2% that Rajan has talked about makes immense sense, if household financial savings need to be rebuilt all over again.
And if a real interest rate of 1.5-2% has to be maintained then the RBI doesn’t have much scope to cut the repo rate further—around 50 basis points more.

The column originally appeared on The Daily Reckoning on April 8, 2015

8 April, 2015

Cheaper EMI? Why all the hullabaloo around bank rate cuts is a bad joke

Vivek Kaul

In the press conference that followed yesterday’s monetary policy, Raghuram Rajan, the governor of the Reserve Bank of India(RBI), said: “Banks are sitting on money and their marginal cost of funding (has) fallen, the notion that it hasn’t fallen is nonsense, it has fallen.”
What Rajan meant here was that banks are able to raise deposits at a much lower interest rate than they had in the past. Given this, banks should be cutting the interest rates they charge on their loans.
Banks have been saying for a while that they can’t cut their lending rates because interest rates they pay on their deposits and other forms of borrowing continue to remain high. Rajan essentially said that this argument was basically “nonsense”.
Banks got the message immediately and by the end of the day three big banks, State Bank of India (SBI), HDFC Bank, and ICICI Bank, cut their base rates or the minimum rate of interest they charge to their customers.
Both SBI and HDFC Bank cut their base rate by 15 basis points (one basis point is one hundredth of a percentage) to 9.85%. ICICI Bank was a little more aggressive and cut its base rate by 25 basis points to 9.75%.
These base rate cuts have got the media very excited. Here are some of the headlines. The Times of India says: “Top 3 Banks cut lending rates after Rajan push”. The Economic Times reports: “RBI doesn’t cut rates but forces others to do so”. The normally sedate Business Standard says: “Banks bow to RBI pressure”.
The question is will these base rate cuts really make any difference? Theoretically people are supposed to borrow more at lower interest rates. But is that really the case? Let’s run some numbers here.
For males, SBI offers a car loan at 45 basis points above its base rate. Hence, when the base rate is 10%, the car loan is available at 10.45%. When the base rate is at 9.85%, the car loan will be available at 10.30%. (For females the car loan is available at 40 basis points above the base rate).
Let’s consider a male who takes a car loan of Rs 3 lakh repayable over a period of 5 years.
The EMI at 10.45% would work out to Rs 6,440.74. The EMI at 10.3% works out to Rs 6,418.49 or Rs 22.25 lower.
So, is someone going to buy a car just because his EMI is lower by Rs 22? None of the newspapers which have run extremely detailed stories around the base rate cuts, have bothered to ask this basic question.
What about home loans? Home loans have a much larger ticket size than car loans, so shouldn’t the difference in EMIs there be huge? Let’s see.
Data from the National Housing Bank shows that the average home loan size in India in 2013-2014 stood at Rs 18-19 lakh. Let’s round it off to Rs 20 lakh, given that we are now in 2015-2016. For males, SBI offers a home loan at 15 basis points above its base rate (for females the home loan is available at 10 basis points above the base rate).
When the base rate was at 10%, the interest charged on a home loan to a male would be 10.15%. At a base rate of 9.85%, the interest rate charged on a home loan to a male would be 10%. Let’s consider a male who takes a home loan of Rs 20 lakh, repayable over a period of 20 years.
At 10.15% his EMI works out to Rs 19,499.62. At 10%, it is Rs 19,300.43 or Rs 199.18, lower. So is an individual going to buy a home because his EMI is will now be lower by Rs 199?
What if the loan size were bigger. Let’s say around Rs 60 lakh. How do things look then? In this case the EMI difference comes to around Rs 597.55. So, someone who can afford a home loan of Rs 60 lakh is definitely not going to be impacted by such a low amount. As I have often said in the past, in case of real estate, interest rates and EMIs are really not the problem. The problem is simply the price of homes. They have gone way beyond what most people can afford. And unless there is a correction there, no amount of rate cuts by banks is going to revive buying. This is a simple fact that everyone who makes a living through the real estate industry needs to realize.
What these calculations also tell us is that the impact interest rates have on consumption is terribly overrated. The media spends too much time analysing will the RBI cut the repo rate(I am guilty of the same). Then it spends even more time analysing whether banks will pass on the cut to their consumers. If banks do not pass on the cut it spends time on analysing why banks are not passing on the cut. It would do a whole lot of us more good if the ‘good’ journalists who cover banking start using the PMT function on MS Excel. (This function essentially helps calculate the EMI on a loan).
The issue is whether a minuscule base rate cut really makes a difference? And the answer as I have shown from the calculations above is, it does not. What makes a difference is basically how confident is the consumer feeling about the future. In India, we really do not measure this properly. The Consumer Confidence Survey carried out by the RBI “provides an assessment of the perception of respondents spread across six metropolitan cities viz., Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai and New Delhi.” Given that it has limited use.
To conclude, it is best to quote something that the economist John Kenneth Galbraith wrote in The Affluent Society: “There is no magic in the monetary policy… It survives in esteem partly because so few understand it.” And that indeed will be the way how thing shall continue.

(Vivek Kaul is the author of the Easy Money trilogy. He tweets @kaul_vivek)

The column originally appeared on Firstpost on Apr 8, 2015

7 April, 2015

RBI policy: Raghuram Rajan’s rate cuts have been useless till now. Here’s why

I like to often quote the American baseball coach Yogi Berra in pieces that I write, given that a lot of what he has said makes so much sense. One of Berra’s most famous quotes (which I have also used on numerous occasions) is: “In theory there is no difference between theory and practice. In practice there is.”
Raghuram Rajan, the governor of the Reserve Bank of India(RBI), more or less stated the same in the first monetary policy of this financial year, which was released today. Rajan decided to keep the repo rate at 7.5%. He has cut the repo rate twice this year, first in January and then in March. Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to banks and acts as a sort of a benchmark to the interest rates that banks pay for their deposits and in turn charge on their loans.
But these cuts amounting to a total of 50 basis points (one basis point is one hundredth of a percentage) have not been passed by the banks. A recent Bloomberg newsreport pointed out that 43 out of the 47 scheduled commercial banks haven’t cut their base rates or the minimum interest rate a bank charges its customers. This means that EMIs on loans will continue to remain high.
Theoretically one expects banks to cut their lending rates after the RBI has cut its repo rate twice. But that hasn’t happened. As Rajan put it in the monetary policy statement: “Transmission of policy rates to lending rates has not taken place so far despite weak credit off take and the front loading of two rate cuts.” Offering this as a reason, Rajan and the RBI decided to maintain the repo rate at 7.5% in the monetary policy announced today.
Lending by banks has grown by a minuscule 9.5% in the last one year, data from the RBI points out. In comparison, the growth in deposits collected by banks has been at 11.4%. What also needs to be taken into account here is that the deposit growth has been on a higher base.
Hence, deposits have been growing at a much faster rate than loans. Theoretically, this should have led to banks cutting interest rates so that more people would borrow. But that hasn’t happened. There are multiple reasons for the same.
In order to cut their lending rates, banks need to reduce their base rate or the minimum interest rate that a bank charges to its customers. When a bank cuts its base rate, the interest rates that it charges on all its loans, fall. But the interest that it pays on its deposits do not work in the same way.
When a bank cuts the interest rate on its fixed deposit, only fixed deposits issued after the cut, get paid a lower rate of interest. The fixed deposits issued before the cut continue to be paid a higher rate of interest. While the interest a bank earns on its loans is floating, the interest it has to pay on its deposits is not. Hence, banks are reluctant to cut their lending rates even though the RBI has indicated to them very clearly that it is time that they started to do so.
Over and above this, most public sector banks have huge bad loans to deal with. And cutting interest rates would mean taking the risk of lower profits, hence, status quo is the preferred way.
Further, it might be worth pointing out here that it takes time for the impact of the RBI rate cuts to trickle down. A recent report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) makes this point: “Pass-through to deposit and lending rates is relatively slow and the deposit rate adjusts more quickly to monetary policy changes than does the lending rate.”
The report further points out that it takes around 18.8 months (a little over one and a half years) for the lending rates to change. The deposit rates change in 9.5 months. Once these data points are taken into account it is easy to conclude that the two repo rate cuts by the RBI in January and March 2015, will take time to trickle down.
That just about answers the question why the repo rate cuts by the RBI haven’t benefited the end consumers. The next question I try and answer in this piece is what will it take for the RBI to cut the repo rate again?
As Rajan said in the press conference after the announcement of the monetary policy: “You shouldn’t expect direction to change in future.” What he was basically saying here is that the RBI remains on course to keep bringing down the repo rate in the days to come.
And what will it take for the central bank to do that? The monetary policy statement has the answer: “The Reserve Bank will await the transmission by banks of its front-loaded rate reductions in January and February into their lending rates. Second, developments in sectoral prices, especially those of food, will be monitored, as will the effects of recent weather disturbances and the likely strength of the monsoon, as the Reserve Bank stays vigilant to any threats to the disinflation that is underway.”
Unseasonal rains in North India have damaged a lot of rabi crop. A March 27, 2015, press release by the ministry of agriculture points out: “As per the latest reports received from States, the area under rabi rice as on today stands at 39.43 lakh hectare as compared to 43.55 lakh hectare at this time last year. Total area under rabi rice and summer crops moves to 52.20 lakh hectare as compared to 55.28 lakh hectare at this time last year.” Pulse is another important rabi crop.
This crop damage is expected to push up food prices to some extent. An increase in the price of rice can be curtailed if the government chooses to release some of the huge stock of rice that it has. As on March 1, 2015, the government had a wheat stock of 195 lakh tonnes.
What will also help curtail food inflation is the fact that rural wage inflation has been on its way down for a while now. One of the major reasons that food prices were high between 2008 and 2013 was the rapid increase in rural wages.
As Chetan Ahya and Upasana Chachra of Morgan Stanley point out in a recent research note: “In the 2008-13 period, we believe intervention in the labour market artificially pushed rural wage growth to 18-20% year on year. With wages accounting for 50% of operating costs in food production and higher income growth into hands of rural labour without matching the increase in productivity, the rapid rise in wage growth resulted in persistently high inflation.”
But this increase is now a thing of the past. “The good news is that rural wage growth has been on a decelerating trend over the past 13 months as government intervention in rural labour markets has reduced. Since Jan-14, rural wage growth has decelerated at a quick pace and currently averages 6.2% for the 12 months ending Jan-15, compared with 16% for the 12 months ending Jan-14. Moreover, the latest data shows rural wage growth at 5.5% in Jan-15 – near a 9- year low,” the report points out.
This will ensure that food inflation spikes will be controlled in the days to come. And that should give some more space to Rajan to cut the repo rate.

(Vivek Kaul is the author of the Easy Money trilogy. He tweets @kaul_vivek)

The column originally appeared on Firstpost on April 7, 2015